===== 2 Background and definitions =====

[[intro|← Introduction]] |
[[methodology|Methodological approach]] |
[[findings|Preliminary findings…]] |
[[conclusions|Conclusions & next steps]] |
[[annexes|Annexes]] |
[[bibliography|Bibliography]]

==== 2.1 Short introduction to international and EU environmental policymaking and policy instruments ====
*International level* – Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) such as the
Ramsar Convention (1971) and the Montreal Protocol (1987) are either
legally binding (treaties, conventions, protocols) or non‑binding
(declarations, guidelines).  

*EU level* – The Treaty on the European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the
Functioning of the EU (TFEU) allocate environmental competence to both the
Union and Member States (Art. 4 TEU, Art. 191‑3 TFEU).  The EU adopts
legislative acts (directives, regulations) and non‑legislative acts
(decisions, recommendations, communications).

==== 2.2 Environmental compliance assurance (ECA) ====
*2.2.1 Responsibility of complying with EU environmental law* – Member States
transpose directives, adopt national rules and enforce them.  

*2.2.2 Compliance promotion, monitoring and enforcement* – defined by the
European Commission (2017, 2018) and reproduced in Table 2 of the report.  

*2.2.3 National actors of ECA* – public authorities, inspectors, courts, police,
etc.

==== 2.3 Citizen science, citizen‑generated data and citizen actions ====
*2.3.1 Citizen science* – collaborative data collection and knowledge generation.  

*2.3.2 Citizen & community‑led actions (CCLA)* – actions taken by citizens or
communities to improve environmental protection (see Figure 4).  

*2.3.3 Citizen‑generated data (CGD)* – data produced by citizens, often
near‑real‑time, that can complement institutional data.

==== 2.4 Horizontal and thematic policy areas ====
*Horizontal (cross‑cutting)* – policies that set procedural foundations
(access to information, public participation, access to justice).  

*Vertical (thematic)* – policies targeting the three pillars (Zero‑pollution,
Biodiversity, Deforestation).  See Table 3 for the list of policies analysed.